Jackie Robinson

Jack Roosevelt "Jackie" Robinson (January 31, 1919 - October 24, 1972) was the first African-American Major League Baseball player of the modern era. While not the first African-American player in major league history, Robinson broke the baseball color line when he debuted with the Brooklyn Dodgers organization in the mid-1940s. This ended a nearly sixty-year era of segregation in professional baseball, in which African-Americans were prohibited from competing in Major League Baseball and its affiliated minor league systems, and were thus relegated to the Negro Leagues.

Since segregation dominated most aspects of American life at the time, Robinson's baseball career had a major cultural impact beyond sports, and was a significant precursor to the subsequent Civil Rights Movement. Apart from his cultural impact, Robinson had an exceptional baseball career. In ten seasons, he played in six World Series, contributing to a World Championship for the Dodgers in 1955. He was selected for six consecutive All-Star Games from 1949 to 1954, was the recipient of the inaugural MLB Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, and won the National League MVP Award in 1949 - the first black player so honored.

Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. In 1997, Major League Baseball conferred a unique honor upon Robinson in retiring number 42, his uniform number, across all major league teams. Robinson was also known for his pursuits outside the baseball diamond. He was the first African-American television analyst in Major League Baseball, and the first African-American vice-president of a major American corporation. In the 1960s, he helped to establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned and -controlled entity based in Harlem, New York. In recognition of his on- and off-field achievements, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal.

Negro Leagues

In early 1945, while still at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent Robinson a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro Leagues. Robinson's contract was for $400 a month ($58,250 a year in current dollars), a boon for him at the time. Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. Robinson had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro League's disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him. The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now only communicate by letter.

In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, registering 13 stolen bases, and appearing in the 1945 Negro League All-Star Game (where he was hitless in five at-bats). Robinson's performance attracted major league interest. The Boston Red Sox held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson on April 16, 1945. Even with the stands limited to management, however, he remained subjected to racial epithets. Robinson left the tryout humiliated; the Red Sox would later become the last major league team to integrate its roster, in 1959.

During the same period, Branch Rickey was club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers. He began to scout Robinson, eventually selecting him from a list of promising African-American players, and interviewed Robinson for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed toward him. In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily - a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?" Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back".

After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey signed Robinson to a contract for $600 a month. On October 23, 1945, Rickey publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. In what would be referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson would be the first black baseball player in the International League since at least 1890. With the Dodgers offer securing his future and the relentless bus trips of the Negro League schedule wearing him down, Robinson left the Monarchs before season's end and returned home to Pasadena, California. In late September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team of the California Winter League, which competed against Negro League teams and white all-star squads. Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, Rev. Karl Downs.


Minor Leagues

In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League (the designation of "AAA" for the highest level of minor league baseball was first used in the 1946 season). Robinson's presence was controversial in racially-charged Florida. Robinson was not allowed to stay at the regular team hotel, instead lodging at the home of a local black politician. Since the Dodgers organization did not own its own spring training facility (the Dodger-controlled spring training compound in Vero Beach known as "Dodgertown" would not open until the spring of 1948), scheduling was subject to the whim of each locality, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there, after which Robinson was reassigned to Daytona Beach. In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, due to the disapprobation of the city's Parks and Public Property director. In DeLand, a scheduled day game was called off on account of faulty electrical lighting. After much persuading of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his debut in organized professional baseball at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game between the Royals and their parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus simultaneously became the first African-American to openly play for a minor league team, and the first African-American to play against a major league team, since the baseball color line was implemented in the 1880s.

Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base for shorter relay throws to first base. Robinson's performance soon rebounded, with four hits (including a home run) in the Royals' regular-season opening game on April 18, 1946. Robinson proceeded to lead the International League with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage. Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example), the local Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson. After a successful season, Robinson returned home to California in the fall of 1946 and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.


Major Leagues
1947 , Breaking the Color Barrier

The following year, six days before the start of the 1947 season, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues. In his first season, with Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson was forced to play as a first baseman. On April 15, 1947, Robinson made his major league debut at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, including more than 14,000 black patrons. Although he failed to get a base hit, the Dodgers won 5-3. Robinson became the first player since 1887 to break the baseball color line. Robinson's promotion met a generally positive, although mixed, reception among newspapers and white major league players. However, racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."

Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. Other teams, notably the St. Louis Cardinals, threatened to strike if Robinson played, after which National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals), at one time receiving a seven-inch gash in his leg. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields." Rickey would later recall that Phillies manager Ben Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."

Robinson did receive significant encouragement from several major league players. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them." In 1948, Reese put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who had shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Cincinnati. A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, commemorates this event, representing Reese with his arm around Robinson. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with racial epithets during his own career, also encouraged Robinson. After colliding with Robinson at first base on one occasion, Greenberg whispered a few words into Robinson's ear, which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement." Greenberg had advised him that the best way to combat the slurs from the opposing dugout was to beat them on the field. Robinson finished the season with twelve home runs, a league-leading 29 steals, and a .297 average, earning him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors would not be awarded until 1949).

In the October 1948 issue of Sport magazine, Robinson said he did not expect to see baseball's color barrier fall in his lifetime. "I thought it would take another war," he said.


1948 to 1950, MVP, Congressional Testimony, Film Biography

Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over the second base position, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson also had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases that year. In a 12-7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle - a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series. The pressure on Robinson lessened in 1948 with a number of other black players now in the majors. Larry Doby (who had broken the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson.

In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this would be less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions, and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Due to his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp thirty pounds overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate. In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to George Sisler for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion he spent hours at the batting tee learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler had Robinson prepare for a fastball instead of a curveball based on his theory that it is easier to adjust to the slower curveball. "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second," Robinson said. He raised his batting average from .296 to .342 and was second in the league in doubles and triples. As a result, Robinson "exploded" in 1949, and won the Most Valuable Player award for the National League, leading the league with a .342 batting average and 37 stolen bases. Baseball fans voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game - the first All-Star Game to include black players. That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version. Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series. The summer of 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, Robinson was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made in April of that year by the African-American athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. In 1950, Robinson led the National League in the most double plays made by a second baseman with 133. By 1950, his salary was the highest amount paid to that point in Dodgers history: $35,000 ($317,524 in current dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases. A film biography of Robinson's life was planned, but delayed when the film's promoters refused to accede to studio demands that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man. The film, The Jackie Robinson Story, was eventually released in 1950. Robinson played himself, and actress Ruby Dee played Rachael "Rae" (Isum) Robinson. The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."

In late 1950, the general manager who brought Robinson to the major leagues, Branch Rickey, sold his one-quarter financial interest in the Dodgers to co-owner Walter O'Malley, and shortly thereafter was hired as general manager for the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating: "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."


1951 to 1953 , Pennant Races and Outside Interests

In 1951, Robinson led the National League in the most double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row with 137. He single-handedly kept the Dodgers in the race for the 1951 pennant. During the final game of the regular season against Philadelphia, he made a season-saving defensive play in the 12th inning and then hit a game-winning home run in the 14th inning. This forced a three-game playoff against the Giants. Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World on October 3, 1951. Despite his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was". He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.

Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952. He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, finish the year with a career-high on-base percentage of .436. The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the team's racial record, which had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness." The 1952 season would prove to be the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. At that time, Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but, according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.

In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). By this point, Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats. This animosity, however, did not dissuade Robinson from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization, and a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.


1954 to 1956 , World Championship and Retirement

In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. In 1955, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers beat the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases in 1955. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was now established at second base.

Robinson, now 37 years old, missed 49 games, and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, Dodgers pitcher Don Newcombe became the first black pitcher to win twenty games in one year. In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals. By then, Robinson had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes, and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball. After the 1956 season, Robinson was traded by the Dodgers to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash. The trade, however, would never be completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become a Vice-President with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously, his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.